Phonological Rule Inventory

Phonological Rules Indexed by Language

 

Format of Rules:

Language Name

Rule Title and Type:
explanation of rule in prose
[the rule in segments (phonemes and allophones)]
[the rule in features]

Examples

 

Rules:

Catalan

Word-final devoicing:
obstruents become voiceless at the end of a word
/ b , d , z / → [ p , t , s ] / ___ #
[ - son ] → [ - voice ] / ___ #

 

Mandarin

Tone Sandhi:́́
when one dipping tone (third tone) is followed by another dipping tone, the first one changes to a rising tone (second tone)
/ 3 / → [ 2 ] / ___ 3
/ MLH / → [ LH ] / ___ MLH

 

English

Intervocalic flapping:
/t/ and /d/ are flapped when they occur after a stressed vowel and before an unstressed vowel
/ t , d / → [ ɾ ] / ‘ V ___ V
[ + cor , - cont , - nas ] → [ + cont ] / V [ + stress ] ___ V [ - stress ]
See also Goldsmith (manuscript): <http://humanities.uchicago.edu/faculty/goldsmith/phono1/Flaps.html>

Examples:

“better” /  ’ b ɛ t + ɛr / → [ ' b ɛ ɾ ɚ ]
“hit him” / h ɪ + t # h ɪ m / → [ ˈ h ɪ . ɾ ɪ̃ m ]
BUT
“older” / o l d + ɛr / → [ ˈ o ɫ . d ɚ ]

Final T
Syllable-final Ts are realized with a glottalized, unreleased pronunciation, i.e., as a glottal stop.
/t/ → [ ˀ t   ̚] / __ . C
[ + cor , - cont , - voice ] → [ + glottal ]
“bat” /  b æ t / → [ b æ ˀ t   ̚ ] I.E., [ ' b æ ʔ ]
“put” /  p ʊ t / → [ p ʊ ˀ t   ̚ ] I.E., [ p ʊ ʔ ]
BUT
“puts” / p ʊ t + z /  → [ p ʊ ts ]
“batter” / b æ t + ɛr /  → [ ' b æ ɾ ɚ ]
“put it” / p ʊ t # i t /  → [ p ʊ ɾ ɪ ʔ ]

Palatalization:
/k/ in the onset is palatalized when it occurs before /i/
/ k /  → [ k ʲ ] /. __ i
[ - voice , - cont , + back ] → [ - back ] / . __ [ + high , - back , + syllabic ]

Examples:
“keep” / k i: p / → [ ˈ k ʲ ʰ i: p  ̚ ]
BUT
“cop” / k a p / → [ ˈ k ʰ  a p  ̚ ]

/h/ in the onset is palatalized when it occurs before /ju/
/ h j /  → [ ç ] /. __ u
[ - cor , + cont , + back ] → [ + cor , - back ] / . __ [ + high , + back , + syllabic ]

Examples:
“huge” / h j u dʒ / → [ ç uʷ: dʒ ]
“human” / h j u m æ n / → [ ç uʷ m ə n ]
BUT
“who” / h u / → [ h uʷ ]

Aspiration:
Voiceless stops are aspirated when they occur before a stressed vowel (which may be preceded by a glide or liquid)
/ p , t , k / → [ pʰ , tʰ , kʰ ] / . __ ( glide or liquid ) ˈ V
[ - cont , - voice ] → [ + spread glottis ] / . __ ( [ + son ] ) V [ + stress ]

Examples:
“tea” / t i: / → [ tʰ i: ]
“puny” / ˈ p ju n i / → [ ˈ pʰ uʷ . n i ]
“cat” / k æ t / → [ k ʰ æ  ˀ t   ̚  ]
BUT
“Steve” / s t i: v / → [ s t i: v ]

Dark and Clear L:
/l/ is velarized at the end of the word (or before another consonant and the word boundary) and non-velarized elsewhere (i.e., in the onset).
/ l / → [ ɫ ] / ___ ( C ) #
/ l / → [ l ] / elsewhere
[ + lat ] → [ + back ] / ___ ( C ) #

Examples:
“flaw” / f l ɔ / → [ f l ɔ ]
“fall” / f ɔ l / → [ f ɔ ɫ ]
“bolt” / b o l t / → [ b o ɫ ˀ t  ̚   ]
BUT
“falling” / f ɔ l + i ŋ / → [ f ɔ . l ɪ ŋ ]

French

Gliding:
high front vowels become glides before another vowel
/ i , y / → [ j , ɰ ] / . C ___ V
[ + syl , + high , - back ] → [ - syl ] / . C ___ V

Examples:
“bien” ‘good’ / b i ε n / → [ b j ɛ̃ ]
“tuer” / t y + ɛ / ’to kill’ → [ t ɰ ɛ ]
BUT
“tue” ‘kills’ / t y + ə / → [ t y ]

Schwa Deletion:
unstressed <e> is often deleted in alternate syllables
/ ə /  → ∅ / [ ə ] __ [ - stress ]

Examples:
“une” ‘a.FEM’ / y n + ə / → [ y n _ ]
“dire” ‘to say’ / d i + r ə / → [ d i: ʁ _ . ]
BUT
“dirais” ‘would say’ / d i + r ɛ / → [ d i . ʁ ɛ ]

German

Word-final devoicing:
obstruents and fricatives become voiceless at the ends of words
/ b , d , g , z , v / → [ p , t , k , s , f ] / ___ #
[ - son ] → [ - voice ] / ___ #

Examples:
“Bad” ‘bath’ / b a: d / → [ b a: t ]
BUT
“Bäder” ‘baths’ / b ɛ: d + ɛr / → [ b ɛ: . d ɐ ] or [ b e: . d ɐ ]

Regressive voice assimilation:
consonants assimilate in voice to the following consonant
/ p , b , t , d , k , g , s , z , f , v / → [ α voice ] / ___ C [ α voice ]
C → [ α voice ] / ___ [ - syl , α voice ]

Examples:
“sagt” ‘says’ / z a: g + t / → [ z a: k t ]
BUT
“sagen” ‘to say’ / z a: g + ɛ n / → [ ' z a: . g ə n ] or [ ' z a: . g ŋ ]

Schwa:
unstressed short E pronounced as a schwa
/ ε / → [ ə ] / [ - stress ]
/ + syl , – high , – low , – back / → [ + back ] / [ - stress ]

Example: “arbeite” ‘work.1SG’ / ’ a r b a j t ε / → [ ' a ɐ . b a j . t ə ]

Syllabic Nasal:
– A final nasal assimilates to the place of articulation of the preceding consonant,
– Unstressed E before at the end of a word deletes, and
– The nasal becomes syllabic.
UNLESS !! the first step would result in syllabic [ɱ]. In which case nothing happens.

/ εN / → [ N̩ ] / ___ #
[ + syl , - high , - low , - back ] [ + nasal , - syl ] → ∅ [ + syl ] / ___ #

Examples:
“tragen” ‘to carry’ / t r a: g + ɛ n ] → [ ' tʰ ɣ a: . g ŋ ]
“gehen” ‘to go’ [ g e: + ɛ n ]  → [ ˈ g e: . n̩ ]
BUT
“schöpfen” ‘to create’ / ʃ œ pf + ɛ n / → [ ʃ œ . pf ə n ]

Spirantization:
IG pronounced ICH in the coda
/ g / → [ ç̩ ] / i ___ .
[ - son , - cont , + voice , + back ] → [ + cont , - voice , - back ] / V [ + hi , - back , - round ] ___ #

Examples:
“zwanzig” ‘twenty’ / ‘ ts v a n ts i g / → [ ' tsʰ v a n . ts ɪ ç ]
“Barmherzigkeit” ‘mercy’ / b a r m + h ɛr ts + i g + k aj t / → [ b aɐ m ' h ɛɐ . ts ɪ ç . kʰ a j t ]

Palatalization:
S pronounced SCH before a plosive at the beginning of a word
/ s / → [ ʃ̩ ] / # ___ { p , t  }
[ - syl , + cont , + ant ] → [ - ant , + labial ] / # ___ [ - syl , - cont , - voice ]

Examples:
“Straße” ‘street’ / s t r a: s e / → [ ' ʃ tʰ ɣ a: . s ə ]
“Sport” ‘sports’ / s p o r t / → [ ʃ pʰ ɔɐ t ]
BUT
“Ski” ‘skis, skiing’ / s k i / → [ ʃ i ]

Nasal Assimilation:
nasals assimilate in place of articulation to the following consonant
/ n , m , ŋ / → [ α place ] / ___ C [ α place ]
[ + nas ] → [ α place ] / ___ [ - syl , α place ]

Examples:
“Senf” ‘mustard’ / s ɛ n f / → [ s ɛ ɱ f ]
“sanft” ‘gentle’ / s a n f t / → [ s a ɱ f t ]

S Voicing:
S pronounced Z at the beginning of a word
/ s / → [ z ] / # ___
[ - son , + cont , + cor ] → [ + voice ] / # ___

Example:
“Sie” ‘you’ / s i: / OR / z i: / → [ z i: ]
“Sinn” ‘sense, meaning’ / s i n / OR / z i n / → [ z ɪ n ]

Ich-Laut / Ach-Laut:
CH velarized after back vowels; CH palatal elsewhere
/ ç / → [ x ] / [ a , ʊ , ɔ , a: , u: , o: ] ___
→ [ ç ] / elsewhere
[ - syl , + cor , - back , + cont ] → [ - cor , + back ] / [ + syl , + back ] ___

“China” ‘China’ / ç i: n a / → [ ' ç i: . n a: ]
“ich” ‘I’ / i ç / → [ ɪ ç ]
“Becher” ‘paper cup’ / b ɛ ç ɛ r / → [ ' b ɛ . ç ɐ ]
“Bächer” ‘streams’ / b ɛ ç + er / → [ ' b ɛ . ç ɐ ]
“Bücher” ‘books’ / b ʏ ç + er / → [ ' b ʏ . ç ɐ ]
BUT
“Bach” ‘stream’ / b a ç / → [ b a x ]
“Buch” ‘book’ / b u: ç / → [ b u: x ]
“Ach” ‘(exclamation)’ / a: ç / → [ ˀ a: x ]

R And A-Schwa
/r/ realized consonantally in the onset; realized as a vowel (“a-Schwa”) elsewhere
/r/ → [ ɣ ] / __ V
→ [ ɐ ] / V __
OR
→ [ ɐ ] / elsewhere

Examples:

/r/ as C
“Straße” ‘street’ / s t r a: s e / → [ ' ʃ tʰ ɣ a: . s ə ]
“rot” ‘red’ / r o: t / → [ ɣ o: t ]

/r/ as V
“Sport” ‘sports’ / s p o r t / → [ ʃ pʰ ɔɐ t ]
“Herz” ‘heart’ / h ɛ r ts / → [ h ɛɐ ts ]
“er” ‘he’ / e: r / → [ ˀ e:ɐ ]
“Fußgänger” ‘pedestrian’ / f u: s + g ɛ ŋ + ɛ r / → [ ' f u: s . g ɛ . ŋ ɐ ]

Schwa Simplification

Unstressed “er” syllable pronounced as [ ɐ ]
/ ɛ r / → [ ɐ ] / [ - stress ]
→ / [ ɛɐ ] elsewhere

Examples:
“Erfurt” ‘(city)’ / ɛ r . f ʊ r t / → [ ' ɛ ɐ . f ʊ ɐ t ]
“Herz” ‘heart’ / h ɛ r ts / → [ h ɛɐ ts ]
BUT
“erwachen” ‘to awake’ / ɛ r + v a ç  + ɛ n / → [ ɐ . ' v a . x ə n ]
“eröffnen” ‘to open’ / ɛ r + œ f + n + ɛ n / → [ ɐ . ˀ œ f . n ə n ]

Japanese

High vowel devoicing:
/i/ and /u/ are devoiced when preceded by voiceless stops and followed by voiceless stops or a word boundary, and unstressed–in longer words, rule applies alternately, not to contiguous syllables
/ i , u / → [ i̥ , u̥ ] / voiceless stop ___ { voiceless stop , # }
[ + syl , + high , - stress ] → [ - voice ] / [ - son , - cont , - voice ] ___ { [ - son , - cont , - voice ] , # }

Nasal Assimilation:
/n/ assimilates to the place of articulation of the following consonant
n → [ α place ] / ___ C [ α place ]
[ + nas , + cor ] → [ α place ] / ___ C [ α place ]

 

Spanish

Epenthesis:
E inserted between C and S + stop consonant
∅ → [ e ] / C ( # ) ___ s { p , t , k }
∅ → [ + syl , - high , - back , + tense ] / C ( # ) ___ [ - syl , + cor , + cont , - voice ] [ - son , - cont ]

 

Russian

Voice assimilation:
obstruents and fricatives in clusters take on the voicing of the last segment in the cluster
(voicing in consonant clusters spreads backwards)
[ - son ] → [ α voice ] / ___ [ - son , α voice]

Word-final devoicing:
obstruents and fricatives become voiceless at the ends of words
[ - son ] → [ - voice ] / ___ #

Past, Present, and Future

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